Témbongkeun sumber pikeun Dioda

[[Gambar:Diode-photo.JPG|thumb|right|270px|Tipe dioda]]
<!--[[image:Diode-closeup.jpg|thumb|right|270px|closeup, nunjukkeun krital silikon]]-->

Dina [[éléktronika]], '''dioda''' nyaéta hiji [[komponén éléktronik|komponén]] nu ngahalangan arah gerak [[pamawa muatan]]. Prinsip dasarna, dioda ngaliwatkeun [[arus listrik]] kana hiji arah, tapi ngahalangan éta arus lamun arahna sabalikna. Ku kituna, dioda bisa dianggep minangka vérsi éléktronikna tina [[kelép pangecékan]]. Sirkuit nu ngabutuhkeun aliran arus ngan saarah umumna pasti ngagunakeun hiji atawa leuwih dioda dina rancangan sirkuitna.

Dioda baheula maké [[Dioda Cat's whisker|kristal "cat's whisker"]] jeung parangkat [[solobong vakum]] (disebut ''[[vacuum tube|thermionic valves]]'' dina [[basa Inggris]]). Kiwari lolobana dioda umumna dijieun tina bahan [[sémikonduktor]] saperti [[silikon]] atawa [[germanium]].

== Sajarah ==
Dioda térmionik jeung padetan ''(solid state)'' diwangun sacara paralél. Prinsip oprasi dioda [[émisi térmionik|térmionik]] kapanggih ku [[Frederick Guthrie]] taun 1873 [http://nobelprize.org/physics/laureates/1928/richardson-lecture.pdf]. Prinsip oprasi dioda kristal kapanggih taun 1874 ku élmuwan [[Jérman]], [[Karl Ferdinand Braun]] [http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/~eugeniik/history/braun.htm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060211010305/http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/~eugeniik/history/braun.htm |date=2006-02-11 }}. 
{{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}}
Thermionic diode principles were rediscovered by [[Thomas Edison]] on [[February 13]], [[1880]] and he took out a patent in [[1883]] ({{US patent|307031}}), but developed the idéa no further. Braun patented the crystal rectifier in 1899 [http://encyclobeamia.solarbotics.net/articles/diode.html]. The first radio receiver using a crystal diode was built around [[1900]] by [[Greenleaf Whittier Pickard]]. The first thermionic diode was patented in Britain by [[John Ambrose Fleming]] (scientific adviser to the [[Marconi Company]] and former Edison employee [http://www.jmargolin.com/history/trans.htm]) on [[November 16]], [[1904]] ({{US patent|803684}} in November 1905). Pickard received a patent for a silicon crystal detector on [[November 20]], [[1906]] [http://www.bellsystemmemorial.com/belllabs_transistor1.html] ({{US patent|836531}}).

At the time of their invention such devices were known as [[rectifiers]]. In [[1919]] [[William Henry Eccles]] coined the term '''diode''' from [[Greek and Latin roots|Greek roots]]; ''di'' méans 'two', and ''ode'' (from ''odos'') méans 'path'.

== Diod [[térmionik]] atawa ngandung gas ==
[[Gambar:Dioda symbol.svg|right|100px|Vacuum tube diode symbol]]
Thermionic diodes are [[vacuum tube]] devices (also known as [[thermionic valve]]s), which are arrangements of [[electrode]]s surrounded by a vacuum within a glass envelope, similar in appéarance to [[incandescent light bulb]]s.

In vacuum tube diodes, a current is passed through the [[cathode]], a [[filament]] tréated with a mixture of [[barium]] and [[strontium]] [[oxide]]s, which are [[oxide]]s of [[alkaline earth metal]]s. The current héats the filament, causing [[thermionic emission]] of electrons into the vacuum envelope. In forward operation, a surrounding metal electrode, called the [[anode]], is positively charged, so that it [[electrostatics|electrostatically]] attracts the emitted electrons. 
However, electrons are not éasily reléased from the unhéated anode surface when the voltage polarity is reversed and hence any reverse flow is a very tiny current.

For much of the 20th century vacuum tube diodes were used in analog signal applications, and as rectifiers in power supplies. Today, tube diodes are only used in niche applications, such as rectifiers in tube guitar and hi-fi amplifiers, and specialized high-voltage equipment.

== Dioda [[sémikonduktor]] ==

[[Gambar:Diode symbol.svg|right|250px|thumb|Lambang skématik dioda]]
Dioda nu pangmodérenna dumasar kana [[hubungan p-n]] [[sémikonduktor]]. Dina dioda p-n, [[arus konvénsional]] bisa ngalir ti sisi tipe p ([[anoda]]) ka tipe n ([[katoda]]) tapi henteu bisa ngalir dina arah nu sabalikna. Tipe dioda sémikonduktor lianna, [[dioda Schottky]], diwangun tina hubungan antara logam jeung sémikonduktor, tinimbang hubungan p-n-na.

A semiconductor diode's [[Current-voltage characteristic|current-voltage, or I-V, characteristic]] curve is ascribed to the behavior of the so-called ''[[depletion zone|depletion layer]]'' or ''[[depletion zone]]'' which exists at the [[p-n junction]] between the differing semiconductors. When a p-n junction is first créated, conduction band (mobile) electrons from the N-doped region diffuse into the P-doped region where there is a large population of holes (places for electrons in which no electron is present) with which the electrons "recombine". When a mobile electron recombines with a hole, the hole vanishes and the electron is no longer mobile. Thus, two charge carriers have vanished. The region around the p-n junction becomes depleted of [[charge carrier]]s and thus behaves as an [[nonconductor|insulator]].

However, the [[depletion width]] cannot grow without limit. For éach electron-hole pair that recombines, a positively-charged dopant ion is left behind in the N-doped region, and a negatively charged dopant ion is left behind in the P-doped region. As recombination proceeds and more ions are créated, an incréasing electric field develops through the depletion zone which acts to slow and then finally stop recombination. At this point, there is a 'built-in' potential across the depletion zone.

If an external voltage is placed across the diode with the same polarity as the built-in potential, the depletion zone continues to act as an insulator preventing a significant electric current. This is the ''[[p-n junction|reverse bias]]'' phenomenon. However, if the polarity of the external voltage opposes the built-in potential, recombination can once again proceed resulting in substantial electric current through the p-n junction. For silicon diodes, the built-in potential is approximately 0.6 V. Thus, if an external current is passed through the diode, about 0.6 V will be developed across the diode such that the P-doped region is positive with respect to the N-doped region and the diode is said to be 'turned on' as it has a ''[[p-n junction|forward bias]]''.

[[Gambar:Rectifier_vi_curve.GIF|frame|right|I-V characteristics of a P-N junction diode (not to scale).]]
A diode's I-V characteristic can be approximated by two regions of operation. Below a certain difference in potential between the two léads, the depletion layer has significant width, and the diode can be thought of as an open (non-conductive) circuit. As the potential difference is incréased, at some stage the diode will become conductive and allow charges to flow, at which point it can be thought of as a connection with zero (or at léast very low) resistance. More precisely, the [[transfer function]] is [[logarithm]]ic, but so sharp that it looks like a corner on a zoomed-out graph (''see also'' [[signal processing]]).

In a normal silicon diode at rated currents, the voltage drop across a conducting diode is approximately 0.6 to 0.7 [[volt]]s. The value is different for other diode types - [[Schottky diode]]s can be as low as 0.2 V and [[light-emitting diode]]s (LEDs) can be 1.4 V or more (Blue LEDs can be up to 4.0 V).

Referring to the I-V characteristics image, in the reverse bias region for a normal P-N rectifier diode, the current through the device is very low (in the µA range) for all reverse voltages up to a point called the péak-inverse-voltage (PIV). Beyond this point a process called reverse [[avalanche breakdown|breakdown]] occurs which causes the device to be damaged along with a large incréase in current. For special purpose diodes like the [[avalanche diode|avalanche]] or [[zener diode]]s, the concept of PIV is not applicable since they have a deliberate bréakdown beyond a known reverse current such that the reverse voltage is "clamped" to a known value (called the ''zener voltage'' or [[breakdown voltage]]). These devices however have a maximum limit to the current and power in the zener or avalanche region.

=== Persamaan dioda Shockley ===

The ''Shockley ideal diode equation'' (named after [[William Shockley|William Bradford Shockley]]) is the I-V characteristic of an idéal diode in either forward or reverse bias (or no bias). It is derived with the assumption that the only processes giving rise to current in the diode are drift (due to electrical field), diffusion, and thermal recombination-generation. It also assumes that the recombination-generation (R-G) current in the depletion region is insignificant. This méans that the Shockley equation doesn't account for the processes involved in reverse bréakdown and photon-assisted R-G. Additionally, it doesn't describe the "leveling off" of the I-V curve at high forward bias due to internal resistance, nor does it explain the practical deviation from the idéal at very low forward bias due to R-G current in the depletion region.

:<math>I=I_\mathrm{S} \left( {e^{V_\mathrm{D} \over {n V_\mathrm{T}}}-1} \right)\,</math>,

di mana 
:''I'' is the diode current, 
:''I''<sub>S</sub> is a scale factor called the ''saturation current'', 
:''V''<sub>D</sub> is the voltage across the diode
:''V''<sub>T</sub> is the ''thermal voltage''
:and ''n'' is the ''emission coefficient''.

The emission coefficient ''n'' varies from about 1 to 2 depending on the fabrication process and semiconductor material and in many cases is assumed to be approximately equal to 1 (thus omitted). The ''thermal voltage'' ''V''<sub>T</sub> is approximately 25.2 mV at room temperature (approximately 25<sup>o</sup>C or 298K) and is a known constant. It is defined by:

:<math>V_\mathrm{T} = \frac{k T}{e}</math>,

di mana
:''e'' is the magnitude of charge on an [[electron]] (the [[elementary charge]]), 
:''k'' is [[Boltzmann's constant]], 
:''T'' is the absolute temperature of the p-n junction.

== Tipe-tipe dioda sémikonduktor ==
{{float_begin|side=right}}
|- align = "center"
| [[Gambar:Diode symbol.svg|100px]]
|width = "25"|
| [[Gambar:Zener diode symbol.svg|100px]]
|width = "25"|
| [[Gambar:Schottky diode symbol.svg|100px]]
|width = "25"|
| [[Gambar:Tunnel diode symbol.svg|100px]]
|- align = "center"
| Diode
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| [[Zener diode|Zener<br /> Diode]]
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| [[Schottky diode|Schottky<br /> Diode]]
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| [[Tunnel diode|Tunnel<br /> Diode]]
|- align = "center"
| [[Gambar:LED symbol.svg|100px]]
|width = "25"|
| [[Gambar:Photodiode symbol.svg|100px]]
|width = "25"|
| [[Gambar:Varicap symbol.svg|100px]]
|width = "25"|
| [[Gambar:SCR symbol.svg|100px]]
|- align = "center"
| [[Light Emitting Diode|Light-Emitting<br /> Diode]]
|
| [[Photodiode]]
|
| [[Varicap]]
|
| [[Silicon controlled rectifier|SCR]]
{{float_end|caption=Some diode symbols}}

There are several types of semiconductor junction diodes:
; Normal (p-n) diodes
: which operate as described above. Usually made of doped [[silicon]] or, more rarely, [[germanium]]. Before the development of modern silicon power rectifier diodes, [[cuprous oxide]] and later [[selenium]] was used; its low efficiency gave it a much higher forward voltage drop (typically 1.4 - 1.7 V per "cell," with multiple cells stacked to increase the peak inverse voltage rating in high voltage rectifiers), and required a large heat sink (often an extension of the diode's metal substrate), much larger than a silicon diode of the same current ratings would require.
; '[[Gold]] doped' diodes
: As a dopant, gold (or [[platinum]]) acts as recombination centers, which help a fast recombination of minority carriers. This allows the diode to operate at signal frequencies, at the expense of a higher forward voltage drop <ref>S. M. Sze, ''Modern Semiconductor Device Physics'', Wiley Interscience, ISBN 0-471-15237-4</ref>. A typical example is the 1N914.
; [[Zener diode]]s 
: ([[International Phonetic Alphabet for English|pronounced]] {{IPA|/ziːnər/}}) Diodes that can be made to conduct backwards. This effect, called Zener breakdown, occurs at a precisely defined voltage, allowing the diode to be used as a precision voltage reference. In practical voltage reference circuits Zener and switching diodes are connected in series and opposite directions to balance the temperature coefficient to near zero. Some devices labeled as high-voltage Zener diodes are actually avalanche diodes (see below). Two (equivalent) Zeners in series and in reverse order, in the same package, constitute a transient absorber (or [[Transorb]], a registered trademark). They are named for Dr. [[Clarence Melvin Zener]] of Southern Illinois University, inventor of the device.
; [[Avalanche diode]]s
: Diodes that conduct in the reverse direction when the reverse bias voltage exceeds the breakdown voltage. These are electrically very similar to Zener diodes, and are often mistakenly called Zener diodes, but break down by a different mechanism, the ''avalanche effect''. This occurs when the reverse electric field across the p-n junction causes a wave of ionization, reminiscent of an avalanche, leading to a large current. Avalanche diodes are designed to break down at a well-defined reverse voltage without being destroyed. The difference between the avalanche diode (which has a reverse breakdown above about 6.2 V) and the Zener is that the channel length of the former exceeds the 'mean free path' of the electrons, so there are collisions between them on the way out. The only practical difference is that the two types have temperature coefficients of opposite polarities. 
; [[Transient]] voltage suppression (TVS) diodes
: These are avalanche diodes designed specifically to protect other semiconductor devices from high-voltage transients. Their p-n junctions have a much larger cross-sectional area than those of a normal diode, allowing them to conduct large currents to ground without sustaining damage.
; [[Photodiode]]s
: Semiconductors are subject to optical [[charge carrier]] generation and therefore most are packaged in light blocking material. If they are packaged in materials that allow light to pass, their photosensitivity can be utilized. Photodiodes can be used as [[solar cell]]s, and in [[photometry (optics)|photometry]]. 
; [[Light-emitting diode]]s ([[LED]]s)
: In a diode formed from a [[Direct bandgap|direct band-gap]] semiconductor, such as [[gallium arsenide]], carriers that cross the junction emit [[photons]] when they recombine with the majority carrier on the other side. Depending on the material, [[wavelength]]s (or colors) from the [[infrared]] to the near [[ultraviolet]] may be produced. The forward potential of these diodes depends on the [[wavelength]] of the emitted photons: 1.2 V corresponds to red, 2.4 to violet. The first LEDs were red and yellow, and higher-frequency diodes have been developed over time. All LEDs are monochromatic; 'white' LEDs are actually combinations of three LEDs of a different color, or a blue LED with a yellow [[scintillator]] coating. LEDs can also be used as low-efficiency photodiodes in signal applications. An LED may be paired with a photodiode or phototransistor in the same package, to form an [[opto-isolator]]. 
; [[Laser diode]]s
: When an LED-like structure is contained in a [[optical cavity|resonant cavity]] formed by polishing the parallel end faces, a [[laser]] can be formed. Laser diodes are commonly used in [[optical storage]] devices and for high speed [[optical communication]]. 
; [[Schottky diode]]s
: Schottky diodes are constructed from a metal to semiconductor contact. They have a lower forward voltage drop than a standard PN junction diode. Their forward voltage drop at forward currents of about 1 mA is in the range 0.15 V to 0.45 V, which makes them useful in voltage [[Clamper|clamping applications]] and prevention of transistor saturation. They can also be used as low loss [[rectifiers]] although their reverse leakage current is generally much higher than non Schottky rectifiers. Schottky diodes are [[majority carrier]] devices and so do not suffer from minority carrier storage problems that slow down most normal diodes. They also tend to have much lower junction capacitance than PN diodes and this contributes towards their high switching speed and their suitability in high speed circuits and RF devices such as [[Frequency mixer|mixers]] and [[Detector (radio)|detectors]].
; [[Snap-off]] or 'step recovery' diodes
: The term 'step recovery' relates to the form of the reverse recovery characteristic of these devices. After a forward current has been passing in an [[SRD]] and the current is interrupted or reversed, the reverse conduction will cease very abruptly (as in a step waveform). SRDs can therefore provide very fast voltage transitions by the very sudden disappearance of the charge carriers.
; [[Esaki]] or [[tunnel diode]]s
: these have a region of operation showing [[negative resistance]] caused by quantum tunneling, thus allowing amplification of signals and very simple bistable circuits. These diodes are also the type most resistant to nuclear radiation.
; [[Gunn diode]]s
: these are similar to tunnel diodes in that they are made of materials such as GaAs or InP that exhibit a region of [[negative resistance|negative differential resistance]]. With appropriate biasing, dipole domains form and travel across the diode, allowing high frequency [[microwave]] [[electronic oscillator|oscillators]] to be built.
; [[Peltier–Seebeck effect|Peltier diodes]]
: are used as sensors, [[heat engines]] for [[thermoelectric cooling]]. Charge carriers absorb and emit their band gap energies as heat.<br />There are other types of diodes, which all share the basic function of allowing electrical current to flow in only one direction, but with different methods of construction.
; Point-contact diodes
: These work the same as the junction semiconductor diodes described above, but its construction is simpler. A block of n-type semiconductor is built, and a conducting sharp-point contact made with some group-3 metal is placed in contact with the semiconductor. Some metal migrates into the semiconductor to make a small region of p-type semiconductor near the contact. The long-popular 1N34 germanium version is still used in radio receivers as a detector and occasionally in specialized analog electronics. 
; [[Cat's whisker diode|Cat's whisker or crystal diodes]]
: These are a type of point contact diode. The cat's whisker diode consists of a thin or sharpened metal wire pressed against a semiconducting crystal, typically [[galena]] or a lump of [[coal]]. The wire forms the anode and the crystal forms the cathode. Cat's whisker diodes were also called crystal diodes and found application in [[crystal radio receiver]]s.
; [[Varicap]] or [[varactor diode]]s
: These are used as voltage-controlled [[capacitors]]. These were important in PLL ([[phase-locked loop]]) and FLL ([[frequency-locked loop]]) circuits, allowing tuning circuits, such as those in television receivers, to lock quickly, replacing older designs that took a long time to warm up and lock. A PLL is faster than a FLL, but prone to integer harmonic locking (if one attempts to lock to a broadband signal). They also enabled tunable oscillators in early discrete tuning of radios, where a cheap and stable, but fixed-frequency, crystal oscillator provided the reference frequency for a [[voltage-controlled oscillator]].
; [[PIN diode]]s
: A PIN diode has a central un-doped, or ''intrinsic'', layer, forming a p-type / intrinsic / n-type structure. They are used as radio frequency switches, similar to varactor diodes but with a more sudden change in capacitance. They are also used as large volume ionizing radiation detectors and as [[photodetector]]s. PIN diodes are also used in [[power electronics]], as their central layer can withstand high voltages. Furthermore, the PIN structure can be found in many [[power semiconductor device]]s, such as [[IGBT]]s, power [[MOSFET]]s, and [[thyristor]]s. 
; [[Current-limiting diode|Current-limiting field-effect diodes]]
: These are actually a [[JFET]] with the gate shorted to the source, and function like a two-terminal current-limiting analog to the Zener diode; they allow a current through them to rise to a certain value, and then level off at a specific value. Also called '''CLDs''', '''constant-current diodes''', or '''current-regulating diodes'''. [http://www.avtechpulse.com/faq.html/IV.5/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070509024719/http://www.avtechpulse.com/faq.html/IV.5/ |date=2007-05-09 }}, [http://www.aemarketing.co.uk/Central/curlimitdiodes/applicsCLD.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060629234301/http://www.aemarketing.co.uk/Central/curlimitdiodes/applicsCLD.pdf |date=2006-06-29 }}

Other uses for semiconductor diodes include sensing temperature, and computing analog [[logarithm]]s (see [[Operational amplifier applications#Logarithmic]]).

== Parangkat nu patali ==
* [[Thyristor]] atawa silicon controlled rectifier (SCR)
* [[TRIAC]]
* [[DIAC|Diac]]
* [[Transistor]]

== Aplikasi ==
[[Gambar:Diodes.jpg|thumb|Several types of diodes]]
=== Démodulasi radio ===
The first use for the diode was the demodulation of [[amplitude modulation|amplitude modulated]] (AM) radio broadcasts. The history of this discovery is tréated in depth in the '''[[radio]]''' article. In summary, an AM signal consists of alternating positive and negative péaks of voltage, whose [[amplitude]] or 'envelope' is proportional to the original audio signal, but whose average value is zero. The diode (originally a crystal diode) [[rectifier|rectifies]] the AM signal, léaving a signal whose average amplitude is the desired audio signal. The average value is extracted using a simple [[electronic filter|filter]] and fed into an audio [[transducer]], which generates sound.

=== Konvérsi power ===
'''[[Rectifier]]s''' are constructed from diodes, where they are used to convert [[alternating current]] (AC) electricity into [[direct current]] (DC). Similarly, diodes are also used in '''[[Cockcroft-Walton generator|Cockcroft-Walton]] voltage multipliers''' to convert AC into very high DC voltages.

=== Peotéksi voltase leuwih ===
Diodes are frequently used to conduct damaging high voltages away from sensitive electronic devices. They are usually reverse-biased (non-conducting) under normal circumstances, and become forward-biased (conducting) when the voltage rises above its normal value. For example, diodes are used in [[stepper motor]] and [[relay]] circuits to de-énérgize coils rapidly without the damaging voltage spikes that would otherwise occur. Many [[integrated circuits]] also incorporate diodes on the connection pins to prevent external voltages from damaging their sensitive transistors. Specialized diodes are used to protect from over-voltages at higher power (see [[#Types of semiconductor diode|Diode types]] above).

=== Lawang logika ===
Diodes can be combined with other components to construct [[logical conjunction|AND]] and [[logical disjunction|OR]] [[logic gate]]s. This is referred to as [[diode logic]].

=== [[Detéktor]] [[radiasi ionisasi]] ===
In addition to light, mentioned above, [[semiconductor]] diodes are sensitive to more [[energy|energetic]] radiation. In [[electronics]], [[cosmic ray]]s and other sources of ionising radiation cause [[noise]] [[pulse]]s and single and multiple bit errors.
This effect is sometimes exploited by [[particle detector]]s to detect radiation. A single particle of radiation, with thousands or millions of [[electron volt]]s of energy, generates many charge carrier pairs, as its energy is deposited in the semiconductor material. If the depletion layer is large enough to catch the whole shower or to stop a héavy particle, a fairly accurate méasurement of the particle's energy can be made, simply by méasuring the charge conducted and without the complexity of a magnetic spectrométer or etc.
These semiconductor radiation detectors need efficient and uniform charge collection and low léakage current. They are often cooled by [[liquid nitrogen]]. For longer range (about a centimetre) particles they need a very large depletion depth and large aréa. For short range particles, they need any contact or un-depleted semiconductor on at léast one surface to be very thin. The back-bias voltages are néar bréakdown (around a thousand volts per centimetre). Germanium and silicon are common materials. Some of these detectors sense position as well as energy.
They have a finite life, especially when detecting héavy particles, because of radiation damage. Silicon and germanium are quite different in their ability to convert [[gamma ray]]s to electron showers.

[[Semiconductor detector]]s for high energy particles are used in large numbers. Because of [[energy loss fluctuation]]s, accurate méasurement of the energy deposited is of less use.

                                    Engr.Louriel R. Manatom

=== Ngukur hawa ===
A diode can be used as a [[temperature]] méasuring device, since the forward voltage drop across the diode depends on temperature. This temperature dependence follows from the Shockley idéal diode equation given above and is typically around 2.2mV per degree C.

=== [[Parangkat dikopel muatan]] ===
Digital cameras and similar units use arrays of photo diodes, integrated with réadout circuitry.

== Tambahan ==
Diodes may also be referred to as '''controlled rectifiers''', abbreviated ''CR'' on [[printed wiring boards]].

== Fakta Menarik ==
Dioda dina kasus gelas transparan (kalebet versi SMD modéren) tiasa gaduh sensitipitas spésis pikeun lampu (nyéta, alat éléktronik tiasa béda dina hiji hal sareng tanpa kasus, dina lampu). Sirkuit radio amatir aya diod konvensional anu dianggo salaku fotodiod sareng bahkan ogé batré surya.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://eandc.ru/news/detail.php?ID=27670|title=Fakta anu dipikaresep ngeunaan dioda.|last=|first=|website=|publisher=|accessdate=}}</ref>

== Tempo ogé ==
* [[Pamodélan dioda]]

== Catetan ==
<references/>

== Tumbu luar ==

* [http://www.avtechpulse.com/faq.html/ The Unusual Diode FAQ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090427034309/http://www.avtechpulse.com/faq.html/ |date=2009-04-27 }}

[[Kategori:Dioda| ]]